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spermatozoa also possess minimal cytoplasm, lacking significant antioxidant defense reservoirs ( The genomic and epigenomic integrity of gametes further raises the stakes: even subthreshold ROS-induced lesions may result in fertilization failure, impaired embryo development, or transgenerational genomic instability ( 2.2 Physiological roles of ROS in reproduction Far from being solely destructive, reactive oxygen species (ROS) at physiological concentrations are essential modulators of reproductive processes ( Intracellularly, ROS serve as secondary messengers activating the MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase), PI3K/Akt (phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B), and JNK (c-Jun N-terminal kinase) pathways, which regulate cytoskeletal remodeling, steroid biosynthesis, and controlled apoptosis (Figure 1, which contextualizes ROS as both drivers and modulators of fertility-related cellular functions
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