While nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) and CCAAT/Enhancer Binding Protein (CEBP) also contribute to a minor increase in CHAC1 transcription, their roles are less pronounced compared to ATF4 ( FIGURE 4 ATF4 and ATF3 regulate CHAC1 expression by binding to specific sites within its promoter, the ATF/cAMP response element (CRE) at position 267 and the ATF/CRE modifier (ACM) motif at 248
With high free fraction and long half-life, it drives strong glucose uptake into cells, lowering blood sugar
In the fish, creatine plus phosphocreatine concentrations in skeletal muscle were 1315, 1316, and 112125 times those in the proximal intestine, kidneys, and liver, respectively, whereas GSH concentrations in the liver were 3.23.5, 5.36.6, and 911 times those in the proximal intestine, kidneys, and skeletal muscle, respectively
Metabolite concentrations, fluxes and free energies imply efficient enzyme usage